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RETRACTED: A Review on Insights for Green Production of Unconventional Protein and Energy Sources Derived from the Larval Biomass of Black Soldier Fly (Processes, (2020), 8, 5, (523), 10.3390/pr8050523)
(2024-07-01)
Hasnol, Sabrina
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Wong, Chung Yiin
;
Khe, Cheng Seong
The Processes Editorial Office retracts the article titled “A Review on Insights for Green Production of Unconventional Protein and Energy Sources Derived from the Larval Biomass of Black Soldier Fly” [1], cited above. Following publication, concerns were brought to the attention of the Editorial Office relating to major scientific errors and the overall validity of the findings presented within this review [1]. Adhering to our complaints procedure, an investigation was conducted by the Editorial Office and Editorial Board that confirmed that a major scientific error had occurred in the preparation of this review [1]. As a result, the Editorial Board determined that the findings could not be relied upon and decided to retract this publication as per MDPI’s retraction policy (https://www.mdpi.com/ethics#_bookmark30), and in line with the committee on Publication Ethics retraction guideline (https://publicationethics.org/retraction-guidelines). This retraction was approved by the Editor-in-Chief of the journal Processes. The authors did not agree to this retraction.
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Fungal Fermented Palm Kernel Expeller as Feed for Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Producing Protein and Biodiesel
(2022-04-01)
Liew, Chin Seng
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Wong, Chung Yiin
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Abdelfattah, Eman A.
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Raksasat, Ratchaprapa
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Rawindran, Hemamalini
Being the second-largest country in the production of palm oil, Malaysia has a massive amount of palm kernel expeller (PKE) leftover. For that purpose, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are thus employed in this study to valorize the PKE waste. More specifically, this work elucidated the effects of the pre-fermentation of PKE via different amounts of Rhizopus oligosporus to enhance PKE palatability for the feeding of BSFL. The results showed that fermentation successfully enriched the raw PKE and thus contributed to the better growth of BSFL. BSFL grew to be 34% heavier at the optimum inoculum volume of 0.5 mL/10 g dry weight of PKE as compared to the control. Meanwhile, excessive fungal inoculum induced competition between BSFL and R. oligosporus, resulting in a reduction in BSFL weight. Under optimum feeding conditions, BSFL also registered the highest lipid yield (24.7%) and protein yield (44.5%). The biodiesel derived from BSFL lipid had also shown good compliance with the European biodiesel standard EN 14214. The high saturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) content (C12:0, C14:0, C16:0) in derived biodiesel made it highly oxidatively stable. Lastly, the superior degradation rate of PKE executed by BSFL further underpinned the sustainable conversion process in attaining valuable larval bioproducts.
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Black soldier fly larval valorization benefitting from ex-situ fungal fermentation in reducing coconut endosperm waste
(2021-02-01)
Wong, Chung Yiin
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Ntwampe, Seteno K.O.
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Lam, Man Kee
Oftentimes, the employment of entomoremediation to reduce organic wastes encounters ubiquitous shortcomings, i.e., ineffectiveness to valorize recalcitrant organics in wastes. Considering the cost-favorability, a fermentation process can be employed to facilitate the degradation of biopoly-mers into smaller organics, easing the subsequent entomoremediation process. However, the efficacy of in situ fermentation was found impeded by the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) in the current study to reduce coconut endosperm waste (CEW). Indeed, by changing into ex situ fermentation, in which the fungal Rhizopus oligosporus was permitted to execute fermentation on CEW prior to the larval feeding, the reduction of CEW was significantly enhanced. In this regard, the waste reduction index of CEW by BSFL was almost doubled as opposed to in situ fermentation, even with the inoculation of merely 0.5 wt % of Rhizopus oligosporus. Moreover, with only 0.02 wt % of fungal inoculation size to execute the ex situ fermentation on CEW, it could spur BSFL growth by about 50%. Finally, from the statistical correlation study using principal component analysis, the presence of Rhizopus oligosporus in a range of 0.5–1.0 wt % was regarded as optimum to ferment CEW via ex situ mode, prior to the valorization by BSFL in reducing the CEW.
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Rhizopus oligosporus-assisted valorization of coconut endosperm waste by black soldier fly larvae for simultaneous protein and lipid to biodiesel production
(2021-02-01)
Wong, Chung Yiin
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Lim, Jun Wei
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Lam, Man Kee
Coconut endosperm waste (CEW) was treated by Rhizopus oligosporus via in situ and ex situ fermentations together with bioconversion into valuable black soldier fly larval biomass. The ex situ fermentation could overall enrich the nutritional compositions of CEW by hydrolyzing its complex organic polymers and exuding assimilable nutrients to enhance the black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) growth. Nevertheless, the larval gut bacteria were competing with Rhizopus oligosporus in in situ fermentation, derailing the hydrolysis processes and larval growth. Accordingly, the highest growth rates achieved were around 0.095 g/day, as opposed to only 0.065 g/day whilst using 0.5 wt% of Rhizopus oligosporus to perform ex situ and in situ fermentations, respectively. These were also underpinned by the greater amount of total CEW consumed when employing ex situ fermentation, with comparable metabolic costs to feeding on in situ-fermented CEW. The mature BSFL were subsequently harvested and the amounts of protein and lipid produced were assessed in terms of their feasibility for biodiesel production. While the statistical analyses showed that the larval protein yields derived from both fermentation modes were insignificant, the BSFL could attain higher lipid and protein productivities upon feeding with ex situ-rather than in situ-fermented CEW mediums. Better yet, the larval biodiesel quality measured in terms of the fatty acid methyl ester composition were not varied significantly by Rhizopus oligosporus through the fermentation process. Thereby, the presence of 1.0 wt% Rhizopus oligosporus was considered optimum to perform ex situ fermentation, giving rise to the acceptable growth of BSFL loaded with the highest lipid yield and productivity for producing biodiesel and protein simultaneously.
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Blended sewage sludge–palm kernel expeller to enhance the palatability of black soldier fly larvae for biodiesel production
(2021-02-01)
Raksasat, Ratchaprapa
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Wong, Chung Yiin
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Lam, Man Kee
Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) have been employed for valorizing organic waste materials as the larvae are able to consume organic waste and transform it into valuable larval biomass. In this study, BSFL were found to potentially reduce blended sewage sludge. The addition of palm kernel expeller (PKE) fortified the protein and lipid content in blended sewage sludge substrates, leading to larval growth enhancement. In addition, the larval weight also influenced the lipid yield and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profile. However, the optimum ratio of sewage sludge to PKE had to be determined as excess PKE content could become a threat to larval growth by contributing to the reduction of non-fiber carbohydrates content in the feed, thereby resulting in the decrease in lipid yield and FAME content. In this work, a sewage sludge to PKE ratio of 2:3 proffered the highest larval weight gained at 46.99 ± 2.09 mg/larva. Meanwhile, a proportion of 3:2 of sewage sludge to PKE was able provide the highest lipid yield of 17 ± 1.77%. Furthermore, the FAME profile revealed the presence of a significant amount of saturated and monosaturated fatty acids, indicating a good quality biodiesel. Thus, BSFL-based biodiesel fed with blended sewage sludge and PKE could be utilized for producing a high quality biodiesel. However, further improvement on the amount of lipid yield and FAME content should be further investigated.
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Insight review of attached microalgae growth focusing on support material packed in photobioreactor for sustainable biodiesel production and wastewater bioremediation
(2020-12-01)
Rosli, Siti Suhailah
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Amalina Kadir, Wan Nadiah
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Wong, Chung Yiin
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Han, Fon Yee
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Lim, Jun Wei
The suspended microalgal cultivation systems targeting the production of lipid for biodiesel is still unable to meet the commercial and economic feasibility due to high energy and cost inputs during the harvesting process. Currently, the attached microalgal cultivation systems are known as an innovative technology to resolve the problematic aspects of suspended cultivation as the biomass can be easily separated from the culture medium with negligible energy input and no chemical need. Accordingly, this paper is focusing on reviewing various support materials utilized by researchers in growing the attached microalgal biomass in either fixed bed or fluidized bed bioreactor to ensure sustainable biomass production prior for biodiesel. An extensive review of the cultivation conditions impacting the growth of attached microalgal biomass is conducted in determining the optimized condition to enhance biomass productivity. The novelty of this paper is presented through in-depth analyses and discussions concerning the kinetic models and mechanisms study in selecting the suitable support materials for attached microalgal growth system. The incorporation of the cultivation condition parameter in predicting the growth of attached microalgae biomass via kinetic study is crucial in proffering new directions for technological developments and microalgal industry application. The ability of attached microalgal biomass in efficiently assimilate the nutrients available in the nutrient-rich wastewater for the microalgae growth is considered as an economical feasible approached. The suitable photobioreactor designs for growing the attached microalgal biomass are also discussed in detail in ensuring the sustainability of attached microalgal biomass production.
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A review on insights for green production of unconventional protein and energy sources derived from the larval biomass of black soldier fly
(2020-05-01)
Hasnol, Sabrina
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Wong, Chung Yiin
;
Khe, Cheng Seong
The purpose of this review is to reveal the lipid and protein contents in black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) for the sustainable production of protein and energy sources. It has been observed from studies in the literature that the larval lipid and protein contents vary with the rearing conditions as well as the downstream processing employed. The homogenous, heterogenous and microbial-treated substrates via fermentation are used to rear BSFL and are compared in this review for the simultaneous production of larval protein and biodiesel. Moreover, the best moisture content and the aeration rate of larval feeding substrates are also reported in this review to enhance the growth of BSFL. As the downstream process after harvesting starts with larval inactivation, various related methods have also been reviewed in relation to its impact on the quality/quantity of larval protein and lipids. Subsequently, the other downstream processes, namely, extraction and transesterification to biodiesel, are finally epitomized from the literature to provide a comprehensive review for the production of unconventional protein and lipid sources from BSFL feedstock. Incontrovertibly, the review accentuates the great potential use of BSFL biomass as a green source of protein and lipids for energy production in the form of biodiesel. The traditional protein and energy sources, preponderantly fishmeal, are unsustainable naturally, pressingly calling for immediate substitutions to cater for the rising demands. Accordingly, this review stresses the benefits of using BSFL biomass in detailing its production from upstream all the way to downstream processes which are green and economical at the same time.

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