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Impact of botanical essential oils on pupation and survival of Musca domestica L.
(2026-05-01)
Moungthipmalai, T.
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Sriboonjit, N.
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Khuendee, P.
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Phunglakchai, J.
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Thongsaiklaing, M.
Among the tested botanical extracts, Illicium verum (star anise) essential oil at 10% demonstrated the highest efficacy in disrupting normal pupal development. Only 65.00% of individuals successfully emerged as fully developed adults after a 10-day exposure period. A notable proportion exhibited transitional deformities, particularly malformed pupal-adult intermediates, indicating interference with metamorphic progression. In comparison, cypermethrin, a commonly applied synthetic insecticide at the same concentration, resulted in a lower mortality rate of 39.67% under identical experimental conditions. The superior performance of star anise oil highlighted its potential as a plant-derived alternative for insect control. These findings suggested that the incorporation of such natural products into integrated pest management strategies may reduce dependence on conventional synthetic chemicals.
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Epidemiology and Antimicrobial-Resistant Genes of Family Staphylococcaceae in Musca domestica: Case Studies from Chicken Farm, Pig Farms, and Residential Areas in Southern Thailand
(2026-05-01)
Sontigun, Narin
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Thanawan, Nattharee
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Fungwithaya, Punpichaya
The major Staphylococcaceae family is recognized as opportunistic pathogens colonizing human and animal skin, mucous membranes, and environments. Musca domestica, the house fly, plays a role in the transmission of AMR bacteria. This study focused on examining the epidemiology and antimicrobial-resistant genes of the family Staphylococcaceae in M. domestica through metagenomic analysis, using samples collected from three animal farms and two residential areas in southern Thailand. Fifty M. domestica were collected from five places surrounding Walailak University, including one chicken farm (CF1), two pig farms (PF2 and PF3), and two residential areas (H1 and H2). All samples were dispatched for analysis using shotgun metagenomic sequencing and analyzed using FastQC, MultiQC, FASTQ, MEGAHIT, QUAST, ABRicate, AMRFinderPlus, ResFinder, ARG-ANNOT, MEGARES, PlasmidFinder, VFDB, Kraken2, Krona and Python. Our findings describe the taxonomic composition of Staphylococcaceae taxa in M. domestica from different environments; the representation of the family Staphylococcaceae in CF1, PF2, PF3, H1, and H2 was recorded at 2%, 0.7%, 0.2%, 0.2%, and 2% of this phylum, respectively. The average populations discovered were Staphylococcus (37.4%), Mammaliicoccus (17.4%), and Macrococcus (10.3%), respectively. Trimethoprim-resistant genes (dfrG and dfrE) were found only in CF1, PF2, and H1. Interestingly, fosfomycin-resistant genes were found only in M. domestica within residential areas. Our findings pertain to the Staphylococcaceae population in M. domestica within residential areas, which exhibited varying multidrug-resistance genes, particularly those resistant to fosfomycin.
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Synergistic Adulticidal Activity of Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), Star Anise (Illicium verum), Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) Essential Oil and Their Components Against the Housefly (Musca domestica) and Their Safety for Key Non-Target Organisms
(2026-04-01)
Passara, Hataichanok
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Laosinwattana, Chamroon
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Moungthipmalai, Tanapoom
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Murata, Kouhei
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Soonwera, Mayura
Botanical insecticides containing a mixture of plant essential oils (EOs) are considered suitable for the management of houseflies (M. domestica). The adulticidal efficacies of single EOs and mixtures of EOs, including lemongrass (C. citratus), star anise (I. verum), nutmeg (M. fragrans), and their components (geranial, trans-anethole, and α-pinene), against houseflies were determined in comparison to 2% (w/v) α-cypermethrin as the positive control and distilled water as the negative control. The mixture of star anise EO (1%) + geranial (1%) was the most effective adulticide, superseding single EOs, other combinations of EOs, and its active component, α-cypermethrin, and distilled water. This mixture was highly synergistic and was found to be over 74% more toxic than all single EOs and almost 2.6 times more toxic than α-cypermethrin. Furthermore, the tested EOs did not cause mortality in guppies (P. reticulata) or earthworms (E. fetida), and caused a maximum of 48% mortality in honeybees (A. mellifera) at 24 h; by contrast, α-cypermethrin led to 100% mortality in honeybees within 0.5 h and in guppies and earthworms within 24 h, although it had low toxicity toward houseflies. Thus, a mixture of star anise EO + geranial is a promising source of EO-derived insecticides for housefly control that is also safe for important non-target species.
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Binary Mixtures of Essential Oils: Potent Housefly Adulticides That Are Safe Against Non-Target Species
(2025-08-01)
Passara, Hataichanok
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Sittichok, Sirawut
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Moungthipmalai, Tanapoom
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Laosinwattana, Chamroon
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Murata, Kouhei
In this study, we investigated the insecticidal potential of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and Cymbopogon citratus Stapf essential oils (EOs), both alone and in synergistic blends with their primary active compounds, against adult houseflies (Musca domestica L.). Toxicity assessments were also conducted on non-target organisms—dwarf honeybees (Apis florea Fabricius) and guppies (Poecilia reticulata Peters)—to evaluate environmental safety. All binary EO mixtures demonstrated superior efficacy compared to individual EOs and the synthetic pyrethroid α-cypermethrin (1% positive control). The most potent formulation, combining 2.5% (v/v) geranial with 2.5% (v/v) E. globulus EO, exhibited a synergistic effect, achieving complete fly mortality (LT<inf>50</inf>: 0.06 h). This mixture’s mortality index significantly exceeded those of single-component formulations, with a mortality index of 0.22, confirming greater toxicity to flies than α-cypermethrin. Importantly, all the tested EOs and their blends were non-toxic to honeybees and guppies; in comparison, α-cypermethrin caused significant harm. These findings highlight the 2.5% (v/v) geranial + 2.5% (v/v) E. globulus EO blend as a highly effective and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional insecticides. Further research is recommended to optimize its formulation for practical use in sustainable fly management.
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Plant essential oils, trans-anethole and eugenol, for housefly knockdown and mortality
(2025-03-01)
Sittichok, S.
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Passara, H.
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Sinthusiri, J.
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Soonwera, M.
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Thongsaiklaing, T.
The knockdown and mortality of some compounds from natural oils (trans-anethole, eugenol and a combination of trans-anethole and eugenol) against adult houseflies (Musca domestica) compared with cypermethrin was investigated. The knockdown and mortalities were highest at 100% of 1% trans-anethole with KT50= 31 min and LT50 = 31 min. The mortality index of trans-anethole was 82.1 times that of cypermethrin. In contrast, 1% eugenol had knockdown and mortality was 36% and 0.5% trans-anethole + 0.5% eugenol had knockdown and mortality of 68%, with mortality indexes of 1.6 and 3.2 times versus cypermethrin. The trans-anethole high toxicity and low residue made it a superior control for houseflies.
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Adulticidal activity against houseflies (Musca domestica L.; Muscidae: Diptera) of combinations of Cymbopogoncitratus and Eucalyptus globulus essential oils and their major constituents
(2023-05-01)
Moungthipmalai, T.
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Soonwera, M.
The efficacies of Cymbopogon citratus, Eucalyptus globulus, eucalyptol, geranial, and their combined formulations against houseflies (Musca domestica) were evaluated and compared to cypermethrin, a common synthetic insecticide. Using a standard susceptibility assay that the World Health Organization (WHO) advises, the knockdown and mortality rates were calculated. The tested concentration range of these essential oils and their constituents was between 1% to 5%. The highest efficacy (100% knockdown rate and mortality rate) were provided by a combined formulation of 2% E. globulus EO + 1% geranial. This formulation had a KT<inf>50</inf> of 4.27 min. The two next best formulations were 2% C. citratus EO + 1% eucalyptol that provided a KT<inf>50</inf> of 5.85 min and an individual 5% C. citratus EO that provided a KT<inf>50</inf> of 6.69 min. Most importantly, several tested formulations provided a higher knockdown rate than 1% cypermethrin. Therefore, these formulations have a full potential as an alternative natural insecticide to replace cypermethrin.
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Adulticidal activity against housefly (Musca domestica L.; Muscidae: Diptera) of eucalyptol, limonene, and their combined formulation
(2022-01-01)
Moungthipmalai, T.
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Soonwera, M.
The insecticidal potency of eucalyptol, limonene, and a combined formulation against housefly (Musca domestica) was evaluated and compared to that of cypermethrin, a common synthetic insecticide. The knockdown and mortality rates were determined by a standard susceptibility assay recommended by World Health Organization. The tested concentrations of eucalyptol and limonene were 1, 5, and 10%, while the combined formulation was 5% eucalyptol + 5% limonene. The highest efficacy (100% mortality rate) was provided by the combined formulation (5% eucalyptol + 5% limonene). Both individual essential oil constituents provided a mortality rate ranging from 10.7-82.0% and a knockdown rate ranging from 8.0-81.3%. Most importantly, the 5% eucalyptol + 5% limonene combined formulation provided as high a mortality and knockdown rate as that of 10% cypermethrin. Therefore, it has a good potential as a safer and equivalently effective, natural product alternative to cypermethrin.
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Adulticidal activities of Cymbopogon citratus (Stapf.) and Eucalyptus globulus (Labill.) essential oils and of their synergistic combinations against Aedes aegypti (L.), Aedes albopictus (Skuse), and Musca domestica (L.)
(2020-06-01)
Soonwera, Mayura
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Sittichok, Sirawut
The knockdown and adulticidal activities of individual Cymbopogon citratus and Eucalyptus globulus essential oils (EOs) and their combinations were evaluated against three medical insect pests (Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, and Musca domestica) using a WHO susceptibility test. The knockdown and adulticidal activities against the three medical insect pests of combinations of C. citratus and E. globulus EOs were higher than those of individual EOs alone. Combinations of 7.5% C. citratus + 7.5% E. globulus EOs and 10% C. citratus + 10% E. globulus EOs exhibited the highest efficacy against females of the three species with 100% knockdown and mortality rates at 1 and 24 h after exposure, respectively. Their adulticidal activities were equivalent to that of 10% w/v cypermethrin. In contrast, 70% v/v ethyl alcohol negative control was not effective at all. The combinations of EOs showed a synergistic effect, i.e., their adulticidal activity was improved by 0.2 to 100%, with increased knockdown and mortality rates, compared to individual EOs. The highest synergistic effect on effective knockdown and adulticidal activities against females of the three species was achieved by a combination of 2.5% C. citratus + 2.5% E. globulus EOs, with 36.6 to 100% knockdown rate increase and 33.5 to 98.9% mortality rate increase. This study demonstrates that all tested combinations of C. citratus and E. globulus EOs were effective adulticidal agents against females of Ae. aegypti, Ae. albopictus, and M. domestica and have a high potential for development into a botanical insecticide for controlling populations of Aedes mosquitoes and houseflies.

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