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Sustainable Production of Chitosan from Mussel Shells with Upcycling of Demineralization Effluent into Calcium Formate
(2026-05-01)
Seangarun, Chaowared
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Boonchom, Banjong
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Seesanong, Somkiat
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Boonmee, Wimonmat
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Punthipayanon, Sirichet
This study proposes a sustainable, integrated biorefinery approach to valorize mussel shell waste into high-value products, including chitin, chitosan, and calcium formate. Formic acid was employed as an effective demineralizing agent, enabling not only efficient mineral removal but also the direct conversion of the demineralization effluent into value-added calcium formate. The sequential extraction processes, demineralization, deproteinization, and decolorization, successfully yielded purified chitin (PCH), which was subsequently deacetylated to produce chitosan (CTS) with a degree of deacetylation of 85% and a molecular weight of 75 kDa. The physicochemical properties of all products were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). FTIR and XRD analyses confirmed the successful extraction of chitin and chitosan, demonstrating the feasibility of mussel shells as an alternative biopolymer source. In parallel, calcium formate (CCF) was obtained from the demineralization effluent with a yield of 94.19%, and its formation was verified by FTIR and XRD. Elemental analysis by XRF exhibited 98.3% CaO with minimal non-toxic impurities. The TGA/DTG profiles of CCF exhibited a well-defined two-step thermal decomposition, confirming its anhydrous form. Overall, this environmentally benign process enables the simultaneous production of multiple value-added products while significantly improving resource utilization and reducing waste generation. The proposed integrated biorefinery model offers a promising, economically viable pathway for marine biomass valorization, aligned with the Bio-Circular-Green (BCG) economy concept.
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Valorization of Mussel Shell Waste to Chitin, Chitosan, and Calcium Lactate for Bio-Green-Circular Management
(2026-04-01)
Seangarun, Chaowared
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Seesanong, Somkiat
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Boonchom, Banjong
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Boonmee, Wimonmat
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Punthipayanon, Sirichet
This study presents a green bio-upcycling strategy for converting mussel shell biowaste into three value-added products: chitin, chitosan, and calcium lactate. Mussel shells were treated chemically with lactic acid during demineralization, yielding a solid fraction rich in chitin and a liquid fraction containing calcium and lactate ions. The solid fraction was sequentially purified by deproteinization and decolorization, then deacetylated to obtain chitosan, while the liquid fraction was evaporated to obtain calcium lactate. Notably, 2.37 g of raw chitin, 2.15 g of purified chitin, and 275.87 g of calcium lactate were obtained from 100 g of mussel shells, demonstrating the efficiency of the process. FTIR spectra revealed characteristic absorption bands corresponding to α-chitin and chitosan functional groups, while XRD patterns indicated the crystalline α-chitin structure and the formation of calcium lactate pentahydrate. TGA demonstrated the high thermal stability of chitin and chitosan and confirmed the presence of crystallization water in calcium lactate. In conclusion, these results confirmed the successful preparation of α-chitin, chitosan, and calcium lactate pentahydrate, with improved purity compared to previous studies. This approach highlights the potential of the green bio-upcycling process of mussel shell waste as a renewable source for the eco-friendly production of biopolymers and calcium salts, supporting sustainable waste management and the development of the Bio-Circular-Green (BCG) economy.
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Synergistic Piezo- and Triboelectricity in a Novel Triglycine Sulfate/Bacterial Cellulose/Chitosan Flexible Composite Nanogenerator
(2025-08-14)
Ukasi, Sirinya
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Saichompoo, Kittipan
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Sae-tang, Chanachot
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Pakawanit, Phakkhananan
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Pongampai, Satana
Organic piezoelectric materials offer sustainable alternatives for mechanical energy harvesting (MEH), yet their potential remains underexplored compared to inorganic counterparts. This study pioneers the use of triglycine sulfate (TGS), a rarely studied organic piezoelectric, within a flexible three-phase composite with bacterial cellulose (BC) and chitosan (CS) for piezoelectric (PENG) and triboelectric (TENG) nanogenerators. Unlike widely researched systems, TGS's unique hybrid organic–inorganic nature is leveraged here for the first time in MEH. Optimized at a 50:50 BC:CS ratio with 40 wt.% TGS, achieves a TENG output of 141.2 V and 93.3 µA post-poling—1.8 and 2.4 fold higher than unpoled samples—driven by TGS's dipole alignment. Separately, the configuration utilizing a 5 wt.% TGS loading yields 13.7 V and 0.19 µA. Advanced characterization (ATR-FTIR, SR-XTM) and simulations (COMSOL, DFT) reveal TGS's synergy with BC/CS roughness, enhancing charge generation. Delivering 118.65 µW cm−2, the TENG (from the 40 wt.% TGS poled sample) powers a digital watch, showcasing practical promise. This work not only introduces TGS as a novel MEH candidate but also provides mechanistic insights into its polarization, advancing bio-hybrid nanogenerator design.
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Extraction of Chitin, Chitosan, and Calcium Acetate from Mussel Shells for Sustainable Waste Management
(2025-08-01)
Seangarun, Chaowared
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Seesanong, Somkiat
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Boonchom, Banjong
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Laohavisuti, Nongnuch
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Rungrojchaipon, Pesak
In this paper, mussel shells were used to produce chitin, chitosan, and calcium acetate using chemical processes, searching for an alternative environmentally friendly biopolymer and calcium source. Mussel shells were treated with acetic acid as a demineralizing agent, resulting in separate solid fractions and calcium solution. The solid was further purified to produce chitin by deproteinization and decolorization processes, and then the deacetylation process was used to obtain chitosan. The calcium solution was evaporated to produce calcium acetate powder. The yields of extracted chitin, chitosan, and calcium acetate from 100 g of mussel shells were 2.98, 2.70, and 165.23 g, respectively. The prepared chitin, chitosan, and calcium acetate were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometry, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) to confirm the chemical and physical properties. The analysis results of chitin and chitosan revealed the similarity to chitosan derived from crustaceans and insects in terms of functional group, structure and morphologies. The prepared calcium acetate shows FTIR and XRD data corresponding to calcium acetate monohydrate (Ca(CH<inf>3</inf>COO)<inf>2</inf>·H<inf>2</inf>O) similar to synthesized calcium acetate in previous research. In addition, the mineral contents of calcium acetate identified by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis exhibit 97.8% CaO with non-toxic impurities. This work demonstrated the potential of the production process of chitin, chitosan, and calcium acetate for the development of a sustainable industrial process with competitive functional performance against the commercial chitin and chitosan production process using crustacean shells and supported the implementation of a circular economy.
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Chitosan nanoparticles from three-spot swimming crab shells for cupric ion adsorption from synthetic wastewater
(2024-11-01)
Kengchuwong, Metta
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Ketwong, Chatyapha
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Trisupakitti, Somsuk
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Ponkham, Pornpimol
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Ketwong, Panuwat
Chitosan (CT) and chitosan nanoparticles (CTNP), extracted from three-spot swimming crab (Portunus sanguinolentus) shells by deacetylation and then ionic gelation, were used to removed pollutants from wastewater. Chitin deacetylation yield to form chitosan was ~75%, measured from FT-IR spectral peak area. After forming CTNP, the FT-IR spectra showed overlapped peaks for COO− of gum arabic, used for gelation, and NH3+ at 1,417 cm-1 and the amino group at 1,554 cm-1 of chitosan. Adsorption and kinetics for Cu2+ removal by both CT and CTNP were compared. CTNP adsorption matched a Langmuir isotherm. Cu2+ adsorption by CTNP followed a second-order reaction, indicating bonding of Cu2+ to the nanoparticles. CTNP was much more effective and faster in adsorbing Cu2+ than CT by 52%, after only a 5-minute reaction time. When using CTNP, the optimum loading was 0.5 g/100 L, at pH 5, 300 rpm and 30 min.
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Colorimetric Screen-Printed Label Using Low Molecular Weight Chitosan Grafted with Rosolic Acid for pH and Ammonia Gas Sensing
(2024-10-15)
Ronte, Arnat
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Chalitangkoon, Jongjit
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Monvisade, Pathavuth
Colorimetric sensing technologies are valued for their simplicity and adaptability, yet their large-scale production remains economically challenging. This study presents a cost-effective colorimetric pH sensor developed from low molecular weight chitosan (LC) grafted with rosolic acid (LCRA), engineered as a pH-sensitive colorant for screen-printing inks. LCRA was synthesized via a Mannich reaction and characterized using1 H NMR, FT-IR, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. LCRA showed reduced crystallinity and thermal stability alongside notable improvements in water solubility compared to its LC precursor. The LCRA ink displayed compatibility with various substrates, including polypropylene spun bond, filter paper, and cotton, applying easily via screen printing without any dye leaching. Notably, it exhibited a responsive color change from orange-yellow to pink-red in response to pH adjustments between 4.0 and 12.0 and upon exposure to ammonia gas. These findings position the LCRA label as a versatile and efficient solution for visual pH detection across various applications.
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Synthesis of Magnetic Nanoparticles Coated with Chitosan for Biomedical Applications
(2024-01-01)
Albutt, Naphat
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Sonsupup, Somchai
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Sinprachim, Tanayt
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Thonglor, Panakamon
Magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles have garnered significant attention in biomedicine due to their distinctive magnetic properties, biocompatibility, and ease of functionalization for diverse applications. In this study, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were synthesized via the co-precipitation method, followed by the synthesis of a SiO₂ coating on Fe₃O₄ (Fe₃O₄@SiO₂) and an amino group coating on Fe₃O₄@SiO₂ (Fe₃O₄@SiO2_NH2) before chitosan coating. Chitosan concentration was varied at 1% and 5% to improve their stability and biocompatibility. Characterization of the nanoparticles was conducted using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDXS). XRD analysis confirmed that the synthesized nanoparticles were magnetite (Fe₃O₄), while FTIR confirmed the presence of-OH and-NH₂ functional groups, which increased after coating with a chitosan layer on the magnetite surface. SEM/EDX analysis revealed that the average diameter of the uncoated Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles was approximately 12 nm, and EDX analysis indicated the presence of sodium after coating with chitosan. Using chitosan as a coating material enhanced the biocompatibility, stability, and functional versatility of the nanoparticles. The results demonstrated the successful coating of chitosan on the Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, which retained their superparamagnetic properties, making them promising candidates for drug delivery applications.
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Synthesis of Cyclodextrin-Grafted Chitosan: From Laboratory Scale to Pilot Scale
(2023-12-15)
Paiboon, Narin
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Phunpee, Sarunya
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Ruktanonchai, Uracha Rungsardthong
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Surassmo, Suvimol
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Methaapanon, Rungthiwa
The CD-g-CS complex particle, made from the synthesis of toluenesulfonyl β-cyclodextrin (TsCD) and chitosan (CS), has a wide range of applications. Previous laboratory studies have proven the feasibility of the synthesis process, but larger-scale studies are necessary for wide utilization. This study aimed to scale up the reaction process from a 250 mL laboratory scale to 2, 10, and 500 L batch stirred-tank reactors, using a stepwise approach. Factors such as the mole ratio of TsCD to CS, reaction temperature, and reaction time were studied to optimize the synthesis. The degree of N-substitution (DS) was used to assess the number of grafted TsCD per primary amino group of chitosan, which is the key measure of the high-quality CD-g-CS. The results indicated that the DS increased with the increasing TsCD to CS mole ratio and reached a maximum at a reaction temperature of 95 °C. The reaction reached optimum results after 24 h. The constant heat transfer rate per unit volume was used as a successful scaling factor for the 10 and 500 L CD-g-CS processes.
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Montmorillonite/Tripolyphosphate Crosslinked Chitosan Nanocomposites for Eco-Friendly Agricultural Applications
(2023-01-01)
Siriphannon, Punnama
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Rungkron, Suthida
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Soetsom, Sunisa
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Sukyee, Suriya
Natural montmorillonite (MMT) was facilely impregnated with a mixed solution of protonated chitosan (CS) and KNO3, which was then subsequently impregnated with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) to ionically crosslink with chitosan, resulting in the MMT/xCS-20KNO3-TPP nanocomposites. The initial content of chitosan to MMT was varied from 2.5, 5 and 10 wt%, and while the TPP:chitosan weight ratio was kept at 1:5. The K+ and NO3- ions interacted ionically and were entrapped in the MMT basal spacing and the free volume of TPP crosslinked chitosan of the MMT/xCS-20KNO3-TPP nanocomposites. These nanocomposites were able to successfully prolong the K+ and NO3- releases, in which the cumulative released values (%R) ranging from 21 – 26 % for K+ and 0.37 – 0.65 % for NO3-. The presence of protonated amine in the chitosan played the dominant effect on the release profile of NO3- ion more than that of the K+ ion. The higher the chitosan content employed in the impregnation method, the more crosslinked chitosan structure in the MMT/xCS-20KNO3-TPP nanocomposites, resulting in decreased K+ and NO3-releases at each pre-determined soaking duration. The MMT/xCS-20KNO3-TPP nanocomposites have been considered as a promising choice for environmentally friendly fertilizers.
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Edible coating of chitosan ionically combined with κ-carrageenan maintains the bract and postharvest attributes of dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus)
(2021-08-01)
H., Nguyen T.
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P., Boonyaritthongchai
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M., Buanong
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S., Supapvanich
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C., Wongs Aree
Dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus) has medicinal properties due to its rich antioxidant profile. Dragon fruit also has an attractive appearance of red peel and green bracts. However, shrivelling and weight loss, bract yellowing, and postharvest diseases are major challenges to the dragon fruit trade. The objective of the present work was, therefore, to formulate a coating composed of chitosan and κ-carrageenan for dragon fruits during storage at 10°C. The composite coating based on 1% chitosan (w/v) and 0.2% (w/v) κ-carrageenan with 0.75% (w/v) glycerol as a plasticiser effectively reduced the physiological weight loss and maintained the freshness of the dragon fruits, while increasing the phenolic content and maintaining the titratable acidity in the pulp. The composite coating delayed chlorophyll degradation by suppressing chlorophyllase and chlorophyll-degrading peroxidase, thereby maintaining the chlorophyll content (45.46 mg/100 g dry weight) and freshness of the bracts. However, the composite coating did not possess a strong effect on enhancing chitinase and β-1-3 glucanase activities of dragon fruits during storage and controlling disease symptoms.

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