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Enhancing lateritic soil performance with cement and calcined limestone dust for road base application
(2026-12-01)
Thwe, Khin Sam
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Ayawanna, Jiratchaya
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Mase, Lindung Zalbuin
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Chaiyaput, Salisa
Lateritic soils are widely used in road construction in tropical regions, but their natural engineering properties often require stabilization to meet strength and performance requirements. In Thailand, lateritic soils are commonly stabilized with cement-based binders, which are applied as soil–cement subbase and soil–cement base layers in accordance with the Department of Highways (DOH) specifications. This study evaluates the stabilization of lateritic soil using ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with calcined limestone dust (CLD) as a partial cement replacement. CLD is produced by the calcination of limestone dust, which is a quarry by-product, at elevated temperatures. In the proposed stabilization approach, 20% of OPC was replaced with CLD to assess its effect on the stabilized soil’s physical and mechanical properties. Laboratory tests included Atterberg limits, compaction characteristics (optimum moisture content and maximum dry density), and unconfined compressive strength (UCS). The results indicate that the combined use of OPC and CLD reduces soil plasticity and slightly modifies compaction behavior due to changes in particle packing and moisture demand. Stabilization significantly improves UCS, and mixtures containing 20% CLD achieve compressive strengths comparable to fully cement-stabilized samples after 28 days of curing. Strength enhancement is primarily attributed to cement hydration, which forms calcium silicate hydrate, while CLD contributes through filler and nucleation effects, resulting in a denser microstructure suitable for road base applications.
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Partial soil replacement in soil cement using bentonite and polyurethane foam
(2026-06-01)
Rattanapitak, Pornkanok
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Shelina, Aza
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Ayawanna, Jiratchaya
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Kingnoi, Namthip
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Mase, Lindung Zalbuin
This study evaluates the effects of partially replacing soft clay with Ca-bentonite or polyurethane foam in soil-cement mixtures to improve geotechnical performance in soft soils. Cement content was fixed at 20% by total mix weight (% wt), while soft clay was partially replaced with Ca-bentonite or polyurethane foam at 20% wt, 30% wt, and 40% wt. Density, weight, and compressive strength were evaluated at curing ages of 7 and 28 days. The optimal mixture, determined based on compressive strength, was subsequently selected for the permeability test and compared with natural soft clay and a conventional soil-cement mixture. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy was conducted to characterize particle morphology and pore structure, providing microstructural insight into the strength behaviour of mixtures incorporating both Ca-bentonite and polyurethane foam replacements. The results indicate a clear contrast between the two replacement materials. Ca-bentonite increases density and compressive strength through pozzolanic and filling effects. The optimal sample, consisting of 50% soft clay, 20% cement, and 30% Ca-bentonite (S5C2B3) by weight, achieves a 28-day compressive strength of 9.71 MPa with stiff and brittle behaviours. Weight increase is associated with Ca-bentonite swelling, which enhances impermeability. In contrast, polyurethane foam reduces density and strength, producing a lightweight, ductile material due to its porous structure and water loss. Ca-bentonite is suitable for high-strength or low-permeability applications, whereas polyurethane foam is appropriate for lightweight fill where reduced weight is required.
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Utilization of Waste Material for Stabilization of Lateritic Soil
(2024-01-01)
Chaiyaput, Salisa
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Ayawanna, Jiratchaya
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Manandhar, Suman
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Sae-Ueng, Songklod
The waste materials from the manufacturing process were employed for the purpose of enhancing the strength of lateritic soil grade E, which exhibited the least suitable mechanical properties. The present study focused on the investigation of waste materials from the steel manufacturing process, namely electric arc furnace (EAF) slag and ladle furnace (LF) slag, as well as waste material from asphalt concrete plants, specifically asphalt waste dust (AWD). These waste materials were examined in relation to their potential utilization in combination with lateritic soil. The mixing ratio employed in this investigation was 10% by weight (wt%). A mixture of 5 wt% ordinary Portland cement was mixed with 90 wt% lateritic soil and 10 wt% asphalt waste dust to enhance the efficiency of lateritic soil stabilization. The efficiency of waste materials was evaluated by the California bearing ratio (CBR) test. The integration of EAF slag and LF slag, byproducts of the steel manufacturing process, significantly improved the CBR more than 5 times and 7 times, respectively, for EAF and LF mixes compared to natural lateritic soil. Furthermore, the CBR of lateritic soil blended with asphalt waste dust and Portland cement exhibited approximately 20 times higher than that of natural lateritic soil and cement-stabilized lateritic soil.
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Application of a cement–clay–air foam mixture as a lightweight embankment material for construction on soft clay
(2023-07-01)
Chaiyaput, Salisa
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Ayawanna, Jiratchaya
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Jongpradist, Pornkasem
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Poorahong, Hatairat
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Sukkarak, Raksiri
Lightweight air foam materials can be used in pavement structures, for example, as embankments and subbase and base layers. Soft clay can be mixed with cement and air foam to generate a lightweight material. However, most previous studies have presented only laboratory test results for these materials and have not shown real-world applicability. The current study aims to demonstrate the application of a cement–clay–air foam mixture as a lightweight embankment material to reduce the settlement of soft Bangkok clay foundations induced by embankment weight. An experimental investigation to determine unconfined compressive strength (q<inf>u</inf>) was initially conducted in the laboratory to establish the ideal quantities of soft clay, air foam, and ordinary Portland cement required for embankment construction using the clay mixture. A full-scale lightweight embankment of area 14 m × 14 m and height 2.5 m was constructed on an 11 m thick soft clay layer to observe embankment settlement behavior on the soft clay foundation. The q<inf>u</inf> values of the lightweight materials obtained from the site were 1.3–1.8 times higher than those in laboratory tests. The mixtures with wet field unit weights of 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 kN/m<sup>3</sup> exhibited q<inf>u</inf> values of 430–620 and 770–1000 kPa, respectively, higher than the standard requirements (> 100 kPa for 7 curing days and > 200 kPa for 28 curing days). Based on monitored data, the lightweight embankment reduced settlement by as much as 80 % compared with a traditional embankment. Therefore, lightweight clay materials are recommended for use in the construction of road embankments on soft clay.
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Utilization of ladle furnace slag from a steelwork for stabilization of soil cement
(2022-10-25)
Ayawanna, Jiratchaya
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Kingnoi, Namthip
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Sukchaisit, Ochakkraphat
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Chaiyaput, Salisa
Ladle furnace (LF) slag, waste from the steel-making process, was incorporated to improve the compressive strength of soil cement. LF slag was mixed to replace the cement in the soil-cement samples with wt% ratio 20:0, 15:5, and 10:10 of cement and slag, respectively. LF slag in the range of 5, 10, and 20 wt% was also separately added to the 20-wt% cement-treated soil samples. The soil-cement mixed LF slag samples were incubated in a plastic wrapping for 7, 14, and 28 days. The strength of soil cement was highly developed to be higher than the standard acceptable value (0.6 MPa) after incorporating slag into soil cement. The mixing of LF slag resulted in more hydration products for bonding soil particles, and hence improved the strength of soil cement. With the LF slag mixing either a replacement or additive materials in soil cement, the LF slag to cement ratio is considered to be less than 1, while the cement content should be more than 10 wt%. This is to promote a predominant effect of cement hydration by preventing the partially absorbed water on slag particles and keeping sufficient water content for the cement hydration in soil cement.
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Stabilization of lateritic soil by ladle furnace slag for pavement subbase material
(2021-08-25)
Chaiyaput, Salisa
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Ayawanna, Jiratchaya
The effect of ladle furnace slag or LFS on the mechanical properties of the lateritic soil mixes for use as a subbase course material in the pavement structure was investigated. The lateritic soil grade E with the lowest mechanical properties was studied by mixing the LFS in the ratios of 5 to 12 wt%. The pavement material criterion of the Thailand Department of Highways was used to qualify the liquid limit, plasticity index, the California bearing ratio, and the swelling index of the mixed lateritic soil with the LFS. An increase in the California bearing ratio of the lateritic soil under the soaked condition was found to be positively correlated with the increasing LFS. Meanwhile, the liquid limit and the plasticity index decreased, leading to a decrease in the swelling index of the lateritic soil containing LFS. Using LFS reduced the total fine-particle ratio in the soil mixture but effectively enhanced the degree of compaction and swelling tolerance in the lateritic soil mixture. 10 wt% LFS is strongly recommended as a minimum admixture in the lateritic soil due to the highly improved plasticity and the mechanical properties of the lateritic soil for a subbase course material selection under the standard specifications.

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