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Extraction techniques, structural features, and functional properties of collagenous derivatives from unconventional animal sources: a review
(2026-12-01)
Indriani, Sylvia
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Petcharat, Tanyamon
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Andriani, Cynthia
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Benjakul, Soottawat
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Nalinanon, Sitthipong
Collagenous derivatives (collagen, gelatin, and collagenous hydrolysate (CH)) are extensively used across the food, biomedical, and pharmaceutical industries. Traditionally, these have been sourced from porcine, bovine, and fish due to their ready availability and biocompatibility. However, conventional collagenous derivatives face ongoing challenges regarding sustainability, resource intensity, and socio-cultural perceptions. This has led to the exploration of alternative collagenous derivatives from unconventional sources, with a primary focus on evaluating their potential for yields, extractability, and functional properties, all of which are fundamental for future scale-up and alternative applications. This review summarizes alternative collagenous derivatives from unconventional animals, including amphibians, mollusks, echinoderms, insects, unconventional fish and byproducts, and reptiles. Their structures, extraction techniques, functional properties, and potential applications are comprehensively summarized, showcasing their ability to complement or even surpass conventional sources in specific uses. Additionally, the challenges and prospects for industrial application, emphasizing the sustainability of meeting growing collagen demand and encouraging further research into these promising alternative sources, were discussed. Unconventional collagenous derivatives demonstrate excellent and unique characteristics as alternatives to conventional ones. Type I collagen from amphibians, reptiles, and mollusks had superior thermal stability. Unconventional gelatin and CH also possess various bio-functionalities that can enhance their potential applications. The relatively low extraction yield could be addressed by increasing the concentration of chemicals or extraction time and incorporating green technology without causing an adverse impact on the quality. These findings indicate the potential applications of unconventional collagenous derivatives as food ingredients and supplements.
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Heating Before or After Complexation Differentially Affects Structural and Functional Properties of Whey Protein Isolate–Gallic Acid Complexes
(2026-05-01)
Pangastuti, Hesti Ayuningtyas
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Wattanachaisaereekul, Songsak
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Karnjanapratum, Supatra
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Pinsirodom, Praphan
Whey proteins readily form complexes with polyphenols, the structure and functionality of which are influenced by factors such as polyphenol concentration and heat treatment. However, previous studies have largely examined these factors independently, and limited information is available regarding how the sequence of heat application (pre- vs. post-complexation) interacts with varying polyphenol concentrations to modulate the structure–function relationship of whey protein-polyphenol systems. This study investigated the effects of different heating conditions and gallic acid (GA) concentration on structural and functional properties of whey protein isolate–gallic acid (WPI-GA) complexes at pH 7.0. The treatments included native whey protein isolate (WPI), preheated WPI, native WPI-GA complexes, and WPI-GA complexes at two ratios (1:0.5 and 1:1 w/w) and heated either before or after complexation. GA addition and heat treatment increased turbidity and particle size, indicating enhanced complexation. The zeta potential showed minimal change, suggesting limited involvement of electrostatic interactions. Fluorescence quenching increased with GA concentration, confirming interactions between GA and WPI. Heat treatments increased fluorescence intensity and surface hydrophobicity, likely due to protein unfolding and exposure of hydrophobic regions. Higher GA concentration enhanced antioxidant activity, reduced foaming capacity, and did not affect emulsifying properties. Preheating also decreased the foaming capacity of the complexes, whereas post-heating restored it. Both heat treatments reduced the emulsifying activity index (EAI) but increased the emulsion stability index (ESI) compared with native WPI. Overall, this study provides insight into how GA concentration and heating sequence influence the complexation and functionality of WPI, contributing to a better understanding of protein–polyphenol interactions in bioactive-enriched dairy systems.
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Physicochemical, Sensorial and Calcium Bioavailability of Jelly Prepared Using Fish Gelatin in Combination with Furcellaran and Calcium L-Threonate
(2026-01-01)
Petcharat, Tanyamon
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Chaijan, Manat
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Indriani, Sylvia
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Karnjanapratum, Supatra
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Nirmal, Nilesh
Confectionery products, specifically jelly and gummy, require optimized structural, thermal, and nutritional properties for functionality and consumer acceptance. This study investigated the impact of furcellaran (FUR) and calcium L-threonate (Ca) on the physicochemical and the sensory properties of fish gelatin-based jelly (JFG). Furcellaran modestly enhanced gel strength and hardness, while its combination with calcium L-threonate produced synergistic improvements, with JFG-FUR-Ca achieving the highest gel strength (947.63 g) and hardness (78.14 N). Microstructural and intermolecular force analyses indicated that Ca<sup>2+</sup> bridging between gelatin and furcellaran promoted ionic and hydrogen bonding, forming a dense and thermostable network. The combined incorporation of furcellaran and calcium L-threonate enhanced the rheological properties while preserving low syneresis. Sensory evaluation revealed minor reductions; however, overall acceptability was higher than 7. Calcium bioavailability after digestion through the gastrointestinal tract model remained high (70–80%), confirming effective calcium fortification. The synergistic incorporation of furcellaran and calcium L-threonate effectively improved the structural integrity, thermal stability, and calcium bioavailability of fish gelatin-based jelly, while maintaining acceptable sensory qualities, highlighting its potential as a functional calcium-fortified confectionery product.
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Impact of Bio-calcium from Nile Tilapia Bone as a Supporting Material on the Stability Enhancement of Immobilized Probiotics
(2025-07-01)
Petsong, Kantiya
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Yarnpakdee, Suthasinee
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Senphan, Theeraphol
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Sriket, Chodsana
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Kingwascharapong, Passakorn
This study presented the potential of bio-calcium powder (BC) from Nile tilapia bone on enhancement of probiotics (Lactobacillus acidophilus) stability as supporting material in probiotic immobilization and novel nutritive resource, particularly calcium. Combined immobilization techniques of absorption using BC at different concentrations (0, 10, and 15%) and encapsulation using fish collagen peptide (CP) (10%) were applied. Immobilized probiotics (IP) were investigated for resistance through various adverse conditions, including freeze-drying, severe pH and temperature levels, and gastro-intestinal tract (GI) conditions. After freeze-drying, all IPs showed resistance with > 90% survivability. Under various pHs, all samples revealed non-significant differences on cell survival under neutral and alkaline conditions throughout the tested incubation period (P > 0.05). Notably decreased survivability was detected in IP with BC compared to other samples, especially under acid condition. IP with 10 and 15% BC (IP-10 and IP-15) showed higher stability to thermal condition (55 °C) with increased incubation time, compared with those without BC (IP-0). After GI digestion, IP with BC reveals a better survivability with greater recovery ability, compared with IP-0 (P < 0.05). Calcium solubility increased with BC level in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05). Based on morphology and microscopy analysis, IP with BC illustrated cells attached to the rough surface of BC, which was coated with collagen peptide. Elemental mappings and distribution content suggested BC could be a great supporting material and calcium resource, particularly IP-15. Therefore, the absorption by BC together with encapsulation by collagen peptide could render a highly stable immobilized probiotic and a good calcium resource.
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Modulating Fish Gelatin Gelling Properties Through Furcellaran Addition: A Structural and Physicochemical Analysis
(2025-06-01)
Petcharat, Tanyamon
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Chaijan, Manat
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Indriani, Sylvia
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Pongsetkul, Jaksuma
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Karnjanapratum, Supatra
Fish gelatin (FG) is a promising alternative to mammalian gelatin but is limited by poor gelling ability, low gel strength, and inability to set at room temperature. This study evaluated the effects of furcellaran (FUR), a gelling agent, on the structural and physicochemical properties of FG gels at different substitution levels (25–100%). The addition of 25% FUR improved gel strength and hardness. However, higher FUR levels (>50%) led to reduced springiness and increased syneresis. Intermolecular force measurements revealed that ionic and hydrogen bonds were crucial in the FG/FUR gel system, with higher levels of FUR promoting stronger ionic and hydrogen bonding. Color changes were observed with decreased L* and increased b* and ∆E* values as FUR levels rose. Gelling and melting points also increased proportionally with FUR content. Microstructural analysis showed denser gel networks with smaller gaps upon FUR incorporation. SAXS analysis confirmed enhanced structural conformation with higher FUR levels. An appropriate level of FUR added (25%) could therefore improve gelling properties via increasing gel strength and gelling temperature without negative effects on springiness and syneresis of resulting gel.
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Low-sodium Chaya Leaf Seasoning Powder with Potassium Chloride Substitution: Nutritional, Antioxidant, and Microbial Quality Assessment
(2025-01-01)
Senphan, Theeraphol
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Puangtong, Kotchaporn
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Namdamrassiri, Benyapa
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Sriket, Chodsana
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Hoque, Md Sazedul
This study investigates the development of a low-sodium seasoning powder using Chaya (Cnidoscolus chayamansa), popularly known as Mexican spinach, by substituting sodium chloride (NaCl) with potassium chloride (KCl) at various ratios. The antioxidant capabilities of dried Chaya leaves, dried at 60°C for five hours, were tested using 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and 2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic) acid (ABTS) techniques, demonstrating excellent free radical scavenging activity and making it suitable for low sodium seasoning compositions. The substitution of 25% KCl was the most favored option, as it effectively balanced flavor and health advantages without causing noticeable changes in appearance, color, and aroma. This recipe successfully reduced the sodium content to 1171 mg/100 g while maintaining Chaya’s original nutritional values, which include 23.57 g/100 g of protein, 4.77 g/100 g of fats, and 54.12 g/100 g of carbohydrates, as well as dietary fibers. Additionally, the formulation demonstrated physicochemical stability, as indicated by an ash content of 14.00 g/100 g, moisture content of 3.51 g/100g, and a total energy of 353.69 kcal/100 g. The safety of this new seasoning is validated by its microbiological quality, which is indicated by a total bacterial count of 2.6×10<sup>4</sup> cfu/g and the absence of mold and yeast. This emphasizes the potential of the seasoning to promote healthy dietary choices by reducing sodium intake without affecting sensory appeal.
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A comparison of the chemical compositions and nutrient values of the sanim and srithong varieties of the farmed golden apple snails (Gastropoda; Ampullariidae; Pomacea canaliculata)
(2024-12-01)
Petcharat, Tanyamon
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Sae-leaw, Thanasak
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Benjakul, Soottawat
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Indriani, Sylvia
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Pongsetkul, Jaksuma
The comparison of the Sanim (SN) and Srithong (ST) varieties of the farmed apple snail Pomacea canaliculata as an alternative protein source has shown that ST contained more hydroxyproline and possessed a greater firmness than SN. Nevertheless, both varieties yielded similar protein contents of 20.90–23.07 % and exhibited similar texture, color, cooking yields and cooking losses after cooking. Good palatability with high liking score was obtained from both snail meat samples, particularly color, texture, and overall attributes. Snail meats possessed good nutritive value with an amount of protein and low fat content, whereas SN contained higher protein and total energy(P < 0.05). Other nutritionally useful chemicals (such as calcium, sodium, iron, vitamins B1 and B2) are present. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) results discovered that myosin heavy chain, paramyosin, and actin were the prevalent protein components. Differences in nitrogen content distribution were observed between SN and ST, in which alkaline-soluble protein was the major fraction. Amino acid composition and fatty acid content varied regarding snail varieties with a large amount of essential amino acids and good source of MUFA and PUFA. Therefore, both farmed SN and ST snails could be an effective alternative protein source with a significant amount of nutritive value.
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Antioxidant and anticancer activities on HT-29 colon cancer cells of protein isolate extracted from Cordyceps militaris fruiting body using diverse isolation methods
(2024-11-01)
Thirabunyanon, Mongkol
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Mungmueang, Natthapong
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Daengprok, Wichittra
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Ngampeerapong, Chitraporn
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Karnjanapratum, Supatra
The present research examines different techniques for isolating proteins from Cordyceps militaris fruiting body powder (COR), namely ammonium sulfate precipitation (ASP), organic solvent precipitation (OSP), and isoelectric precipitation (IEP). ASP yielded the highest protein content (78.90 %), effectively concentrating proteins, while OSP and IEP also produced substantial yields (57.41 % and 69.06 %, respectively). Color analysis revealed differences among isolates, with ASP resulting in a darker hue. ASP and IEP showed higher red and yellow components, respectively. Essential amino acid content was significantly higher in ASP isolate compared to COR, indicating effective amino acid concentration. Thermal analysis revealed different decomposition temperatures and enthalpy values among isolates. OSP displayed the highest phenolic content, while IEP exhibited the highest flavonoid content. Antioxidant assays showed ASP to have the highest DPPH-RSA and ABTS-RSA, while IEP showed the highest FRAP value. ASP demonstrated anticancer activity against HT-29 colon cancer cells inducing cell death apoptosis and inhibiting cell migration, with an IC<inf>50</inf> of 360.63 µg/mL, comparable to Paclitaxel. These findings suggest that Cordyceps militaris protein isolate, particularly from ASP, has significant antioxidant and anticancer potential, supporting its potential as a natural alternative to synthetic drugs with fewer side effects.
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Development of fish snack (Keropok) with sodium reduction using alternative salts (KCl and CaCl2)
(2024-06-01)
Kingwascharapong, Passakorn
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Paewpisakul, Pranpriya
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Sripoovieng, Wilaiwan
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Sanprasert, Sasina
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Pongsetkul, Jaksuma
The incidence of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) caused by excessive sodium intake is becoming an important issue that many researchers have investigated. Processing is an effective way to add value to underutilized fish species. Thus, the objective of this research was to develop a fish snack (Keropok) using reduced sodium. Two types of alternative sodium chloride (NaCl) were used, namely potassium chloride (KCl) and calcium chloride (CaCl<inf>2</inf>) with substitution at levels of 15, 30, and 45 % (w/w). The results indicated that substitution of NaCl with KCl or CaCl<inf>2</inf> in the product had a negative effect on the cooking yield (%) (P<0.05). Using 55 % NaCl with 45 % KCl (B3) in Keropok had a consumer acceptance score similar to the control formula (P>0.05) and the lowest sodium content (P<0.05). After storage at 4 °C for 21 days, the microbial loads (Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, mold, Staphylococcus aureus, yeast) in B3 satisfied the requirements of the Thailand Community Product Standard (107/2011). In addition, increasing the storage time did not affect the texture of the product (hardness, gumminess, chewiness and cohesiveness) nor consumer acceptance (P>0.05). B3 was rich in nutrients (macromolecules and micromolecules) that are essential to the human body. Therefore, Kerepok (55 % NaCl with 45 % KCl: B3) could be considered as a healthy snack.
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Alpha-amylase inhibitory activity of collagen hydrolysate from Asian bullfrog skin and its application in dark chocolate
(2024-01-01)
Indriani, Sylvia
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Benjakul, Soottawat
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Sitanggang, Azis Boing
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Karnjanapratum, Supatra
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Nalinanon, Sitthipong
The present study aimed to investigate the in-vitro antidiabetic activity of collagen hydrolysate (CH) from Asian bullfrog skin and its application as a bioactive compound in dark chocolate bars. Papain (3% [w/w]) was used to obtain CH with a simultaneous conjunction of ultrasound. CH possessed α-amylase inhibitory activity with an IC<inf>50</inf> value of 3.60 mg/mL, while results from inhibition reaction kinetics revealed that CH inhibited α-amylase in a non-competitive mode. Different concentrations (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% [w/w]) of CH were then fortified into dark chocolate bars, and the physicochemical characteristics, breaking strength, and rheological behaviour of the resulting chocolate were investigated and compared with a control (without CH addition). A higher level of CH significantly enhanced antidiabetic activity against α-amylase (p ≤ 0.05) in chocolate bar. Chocolate bar with 2% CH complied with the nutritional claim requirement for ‘source of protein’ with lower fat content and energy value, while sensory evaluation revealed good organoleptic properties.

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