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Correction to: Robust Design of PC/ABS Filled with Nano Carbon Black for Electromagnetic Shielding Effectiveness and Surface Resistivity (Processes, (2020), 8, 5, (616), 10.3390/pr8050616)
(2024-11-01)
Sriseubsai, Wipoo
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Tippayakraisorn, Arsarin
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Lim, Jun Wei
With this correction, the Editorial Office together with the authors are making the following amendments to the published article [1]: Both Materials and Methods (Section 2) and Results and Discussion (Section 3) were revised. References 4–11 have been replaced with appropriate ones. With this correction, the order of some references has been adjusted accordingly. The authors state that the scientific conclusions are unaffected. This correction was approved by the Academic Editor. The original publication has also been updated.
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RETRACTED: A Review on Insights for Green Production of Unconventional Protein and Energy Sources Derived from the Larval Biomass of Black Soldier Fly (Processes, (2020), 8, 5, (523), 10.3390/pr8050523)
(2024-07-01)
Hasnol, Sabrina
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Wong, Chung Yiin
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Khe, Cheng Seong
The Processes Editorial Office retracts the article titled “A Review on Insights for Green Production of Unconventional Protein and Energy Sources Derived from the Larval Biomass of Black Soldier Fly” [1], cited above. Following publication, concerns were brought to the attention of the Editorial Office relating to major scientific errors and the overall validity of the findings presented within this review [1]. Adhering to our complaints procedure, an investigation was conducted by the Editorial Office and Editorial Board that confirmed that a major scientific error had occurred in the preparation of this review [1]. As a result, the Editorial Board determined that the findings could not be relied upon and decided to retract this publication as per MDPI’s retraction policy (https://www.mdpi.com/ethics#_bookmark30), and in line with the committee on Publication Ethics retraction guideline (https://publicationethics.org/retraction-guidelines). This retraction was approved by the Editor-in-Chief of the journal Processes. The authors did not agree to this retraction.
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Biofuel upgrading via catalytic deoxygenation in trickle bed reactor: Crucial issue in selection of pressure regulator type
(2024-01-01)
Pongsiriyakul, Kanokthip
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Lim, Jun Wei
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Najdanovic-Visak, Vesna
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Wongsakulphasatch, Suwimol
Trickle bed reactors (TBRs) are commonly used in various chemical and associated processes. The selection of a proper back pressure regulator (BPR) is crucial for maintaining the system's upstream pressure. In this study, we investigate the impact of BPR selection on deoxygenation reaction in a TBR with two typical types of BPR, including gas-phase type back pressure regulator (Gas-BPR) and multiphase type back pressure regulator (Multi-BPR). Notably, Gas-BPR introduces interruptions and pressure drops during the sampling step, impacting the hydrogen flow rate, while Multi-BPR ensures more consistent hydrogen flow. To examine the performance of BPR systems, hydrotreating experiments were conducted at 330 °C, 50 bar of hydrogen over Ni/γ-Al<inf>2</inf>O<inf>3</inf> catalyst using crude Pongamia pinnata oil as a feedstock and refined palm olein as a benchmark. Insignificant difference in the reaction performance between Multi-BPR and Gas-BPR systems was observed when using refined palm olein. Interestingly, there was a significant difference between the two systems when feeding with crude Pongamia pinnata oil. The multi-BPR system demonstrated superior performance, achieving 100% conversion of the feedstock over a prolonged period compared to the interrupted hydrogen flow in the Gas-BPR system. Further characterization of fresh and spent catalysts using N<inf>2</inf> sorption, XRD, SEM-EDS and TGA-DTG-DSC techniques revealed that a gum and coke formation was a reason for the rapid catalyst deactivation. Furthermore, the interrupted flow in the Gas-BPR system led to substantial gum production, ultimately causing a blockage in the reactor bed. Consequently, for feedstocks with high impurities, a robust continuous flow of hydrogen is essential. Thus, the study strongly recommends selecting Multi-BPR for continuous operation in TBRs to enhance efficiency and avoid catalyst deactivation.
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Cellulase pretreated palm decanter cake for feeding of black soldier fly larvae in triggering bioaccumulation of protein and lipid into biodiesel productions
(2022-10-01)
Jing Lim, Jia
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Seng Liew, Chin
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Raksasat, Ratchaprapa
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Merican, Zulkifli M.A.
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
For every ton of palm oil produced, approximately 0.2 tons of palm decanter cake (PDC) waste is generated. Hence, there is a huge opportunity to valorize this organic waste, i.e., via the deployment of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), which has been widely employed to convert various organic wastes into larval proteins and lipids. However, the PDC is mainly made up of lignocellulosic materials that are hard to digest by the BSFL. Therefore, this work attempted to grow BSFL in cellulase-pretreated PDC; thereby, providing an alternative solution to manage PDC waste. Results had shown that the cellulase pretreatment was effective in breaking down cellulose into glucose molecules, especially with higher cellulase dosage and longer treatment duration of up until 48 h. Subsequently, the maximum BSFL growth was found at 6.56 ± 2.69 mg/larva when being fed with PDC pre-treated by 1.0 wt% of cellulase for 72 h; which was about 4 mg higher than the controlled larva. Using a similar substrate, the highest protein yield and lipid yield from BSFL were attained at 1.63 ± 0.11 mg/larva (22.4 wt%) and 5.12 ± 1.01 mg/larva (69.9 wt%), respectively. In terms of biodiesel quality, a huge presence of saturated fatty acids had made the BSFL-based biodiesel oxidatively stable.
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Enriched sewage sludge from anaerobic pre-treatment in spurring valorization potential of black soldier fly larvae
(2022-09-01)
Raksasat, Ratchaprapa
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Abdelfattah, Eman Alaaeldin
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Liew, Chin Seng
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Rawindran, Hemamalini
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
The valorization of sewage sludge by black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) has gained attentions for sewage sludge management since the sludge can be reduced securely as well as larval biomass can be used for biorefineries application. Nevertheless, the BSFL growth was impeded while assimilating nutrition from sewage sludge due to the presence of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that had entrapped the essential nutrients inside. Accordingly, the pre-treatment of sewage sludge via anaerobic digestion at different pH was employed in this work to rupture the EPS structure and release more nutrients for larval growth. The results showed that larvae fed with raw sewage sludge had attained the lowest final larval weight (2.05 ± 0.38 mg/larva) as opposed to batches fed with pre-treated sewage sludges. This was because the soluble carbohydrate (more than 6.81 ± 1.31 mg of glucose/g sewage sludge) in EPS was released after anaerobic pre-treatment, facilitating larval assimilation for growth. Furthermore, it was observed that further increasing of pH for sewage sludge pre-treatment had led to lower final larval weight gained due to the inhibitory effect stemming from ammonia production at higher pH. The anaerobic pre-treatment of sewage sludge being executed at pH 3 for 8 days had achieved the highest final larval weight at 7.34 ± 0.97 mg/larva. The still low quality of sewage sludges after the pre-treatment also offered benefit, where high sewage sludge reduction and waste reduction index were recorded due to the necessity of BSFL to consume more sewage sludge in compensating the nutrients destitution in sludge. Lastly, the possibility of predicting final larval weight was successfully materialized via a statistical model derived from the multiple linear regression method. The derived model incorporated the interactive parameters of anaerobic pre-treated pH and durations at various combinations could predict the final larval weight.
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Comprehensive Review on Potential Contamination in Fuel Ethanol Production with Proposed Specific Guideline Criteria
(2022-05-01)
Wongsurakul, Peerawat
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Termtanun, Mutsee
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Lim, Jun Wei
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Kiatkittipong, Kunlanan
Ethanol is a promising biofuel that can replace fossil fuel, mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and represent a renewable building block for biochemical production. Ethanol can be produced from various feedstocks. First-generation ethanol is mainly produced from sugar-and starch-containing feedstocks. For second-generation ethanol, lignocellulosic biomass is used as a feedstock. Typically, ethanol production contains four major steps, including the conversion of feedstock, fermentation, ethanol recovery, and ethanol storage. Each feedstock requires different procedures for its conversion to fermentable sugar. Lignocellulosic biomass requires extra pretreatment compared to sugar and starch feedstocks to disrupt the structure and improve enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency. Many pretreatment methods are available such as physical, chemical, physicochemical, and biological methods. However, the greatest concern regarding the pretreatment process is inhibitor formation, which might retard enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. The main inhibitors are furan derivatives, aromatic compounds, and organic acids. Actions to minimize the effects of inhibitors, detoxification, changing fermentation strategies, and metabolic engineering can subsequently be conducted. In addition to the inhibitors from pretreatment, chemicals used during the pretreatment and fermentation of byproducts may remain in the final product if they are not removed by ethanol distillation and dehydration. Maintaining the quality of ethanol during storage is another concerning issue. Initial impurities of ethanol being stored and its nature, including hygroscopic, high oxygen and carbon dioxide solubility, influence chemical reactions during the storage period and change ethanol’s characteristics (e.g., water content, ethanol content, acidity, pH, and electrical conductivity). During ethanol storage periods, nitrogen blanketing and corrosion inhibitors can be applied to reduce the quality degradation rate, the selection of which depends on several factors, such as cost and storage duration. This review article sheds light on the techniques of control used in ethanol fuel production, and also includes specific guidelines to control ethanol quality during production and the storage period in order to preserve ethanol production from first-generation to second-generation feedstock. Finally, the understanding of impurity/inhibitor formation and controlled strategies is crucial. These need to be considered when driving higher ethanol blending mandates in the short term, utilizing ethanol as a renewable building block for chemicals, or adopting ethanol as a hydrogen carrier for the long-term future, as has been recommended.
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Fungal Fermented Palm Kernel Expeller as Feed for Black Soldier Fly Larvae in Producing Protein and Biodiesel
(2022-04-01)
Liew, Chin Seng
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Wong, Chung Yiin
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Abdelfattah, Eman A.
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Raksasat, Ratchaprapa
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Rawindran, Hemamalini
Being the second-largest country in the production of palm oil, Malaysia has a massive amount of palm kernel expeller (PKE) leftover. For that purpose, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are thus employed in this study to valorize the PKE waste. More specifically, this work elucidated the effects of the pre-fermentation of PKE via different amounts of Rhizopus oligosporus to enhance PKE palatability for the feeding of BSFL. The results showed that fermentation successfully enriched the raw PKE and thus contributed to the better growth of BSFL. BSFL grew to be 34% heavier at the optimum inoculum volume of 0.5 mL/10 g dry weight of PKE as compared to the control. Meanwhile, excessive fungal inoculum induced competition between BSFL and R. oligosporus, resulting in a reduction in BSFL weight. Under optimum feeding conditions, BSFL also registered the highest lipid yield (24.7%) and protein yield (44.5%). The biodiesel derived from BSFL lipid had also shown good compliance with the European biodiesel standard EN 14214. The high saturated fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) content (C12:0, C14:0, C16:0) in derived biodiesel made it highly oxidatively stable. Lastly, the superior degradation rate of PKE executed by BSFL further underpinned the sustainable conversion process in attaining valuable larval bioproducts.
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Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Food Waste with Sewage Sludge: Simulation and Optimization for Maximum Biogas Production
(2022-04-01)
Cheong, Wai Lin
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Chan, Yi Jing
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Tiong, Timm Joyce
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Chong, Woon Chan
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
Anaerobic co-digestion (ACD), where two or more substrates are digested simultaneously, is able to prevent the problems associated with mono-digestion. The aim of this study is to develop a simulation model of ACD of food waste (FW) with sewage sludge (SS) for biogas production coupled with pre-treatment, sludge handling and biogas upgrading using SuperPro Designer v9.0. The Design Expert v13 is employed to perform optimization and evaluate the effect of hydraulic retention time (HRT), sludge recycle ratio, water to feed ratio (kg/kg) and SS to FW ratio (kg/kg) on the methane flow, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and volatile solids (VS). The results show that the methane yield of 0.29 L CH4/g COD removed, COD removal efficiency of 81.5% and VS removal efficiency of 69.2% are obtained with a HRT of 38.8 days, water to feed ratio (kg/kg) of 0.048, sludge recycle ratio of 0.438 and SS to FW ratio (kg/kg) of 0.044. Economic analysis has shown this study is feasible with a payback time of 6.2 years, net present value (NPV) of $5,283,000 and internal return rate (IRR) of 10.2%. This indicates that the ACD of FW and SS is economically feasible in a larger scale.
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Mechanism of CaO catalyst deactivation with unconventional monitoring method for glycerol carbonate production via transesterification of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate
(2022-02-01)
Praikaew, Wanichaya
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Aiouache, Farid
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Najdanovic-Visak, Vesna
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Termtanun, Mutsee
Glycerol carbonate (GC) was synthesized by transesterification of glycerol with dimethyl carbonate (DMC) using calcium oxide (CaO) derived from eggshell as a catalyst. The best results of 96% glycerol conversion and 94% GC yield were achieved under the following reaction conditions: 0.08 mole ratio of CaO to glycerol, 1:2.5 mole ratio of glycerol to DMC, 60°C reaction temperature, and 3 hours reaction time. As expected, CaO showed deteriorated catalytic performance when recycling as observed by a rapid decrease in GC yield. This research showed that the active CaO phase first was converted to calcium methoxide (Ca[OCH<inf>3</inf>]<inf>2</inf>) and calcium diglyceroxide (Ca[C<inf>3</inf>H<inf>7</inf>O<inf>3</inf>]<inf>2</inf>) and finally to carbonate phase (CaCO<inf>3</inf>) which can be confirmed by XRD patterns. According to the phase transformation, the basicity decreased from 0.482 mmol/g to 0.023 mmol/g, and basic strength altered from strong basic strength (15.0 < H_ < 18.4) to weak basic strength (7.2 < H_ < 9.8), resulting in the lower catalytic activity of the consecutive runs. Despite the fact that the GC selectivity was almost 100%, the reaction products (methanol and GC) were not obtained in their stoichiometric ratio and their extents corresponded with that of the catalyst phase transformation to CaCO<inf>3</inf>. The mechanism of CaO catalyzed transesterification based on the condensation reaction of glycerol and catalyst was proposed, and in situ formation of water-derivative species was hypothesized as a cause of CaO transformation. CaO could react with DMC and water, generating methanol and CaCO<inf>3</inf>. This enabled unconventional monitoring of catalyst deactivation by checking if the mole ratio of methanol to GC was higher than 2:1 of its reaction stoichiometric ratio. It was also demonstrated that calcination of post-run catalyst at 900°C to CaO exhibited almost constant catalytic activity, and the mole ratio of methanol to GC was constant at its reaction stoichiometry (2:1) for at least 4 times use.
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Catalytic Hydrotreating of Crude Pongamia pinnata Oil to Bio-Hydrogenated Diesel over Sulfided NiMo Catalyst
(2022-02-01)
Plaola, Yuwadee
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Leangsiri, Wanwipa
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Pongsiriyakul, Kanokthip
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Kiatkittipong, Worapon
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Srifa, Atthapon
This work studied the catalytic activity and stability of Ni-MoS2 supported on γ-Al2O3, SiO2, and TiO2 toward deoxygenation of different feedstocks, i.e., crude Pongamia pinnata oil (PPO) and refined palm olein (RPO). PPO was used as a renewable feedstock for bio-hydrogenated diesel production via catalytic hydrotreating under a temperature of 330 °C, H2 pressure of 50 bar, WHSV of 1.5 h−1, and H2/oil (v/v) of 1000 cm3/cm3 under continuous operation. The oil yield from a Soxhlet extraction of PPO was up to 26 wt.% on a dry basis, mainly consisting of C18 fatty acids. The catalytic activity in terms of conversion and diesel yield was in the same trend as increasing in the order of NiMo/γ-Al2O3 > NiMo/TiO2 > NiMo/SiO2. The hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) activity was more favorable over the sulfided NiMo supported on γ-Al2O3 and TiO2, while a high DCO was observed over the sulfided NiMo/SiO2 catalyst, which related to the properties of the support material and the intensity of metal–support interaction. The deactivation of NiMo/SiO2 and NiMo/TiO2 occurred in a short period, due to the phosphorus and alkali impurities in PPO which were not found in the case of RPO. NiMo/γ-Al2O3 exhibited the high resistance of impure feedstock with excellent stabil-ity. This indicates that the catalytic performance is influenced by the purity of the feedstock as well as the characteristics of the catalysts.
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