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Nipah Virus Encephalitis: Pathogenetic Aspects and Current Therapeutic Strategies
(2026-04-01)
Scotto, Gaetano
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Fazio, Vincenzina
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Moula Ali, Ali Muhammed
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Bavisetty, Sri Charan Bindu
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Franza, Alessia
Nipah virus (NiV) is a highly pathogenic zoonotic paramyxovirus responsible for sporadic outbreaks of severe disease with high case fatality rates in South and Southeast Asia. Human infection occurs through spillover from natural reservoirs, primarily fruit bats, or via human-to-human transmission, and is characterized by a broad clinical spectrum ranging from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory disease and fatal encephalitis. Following entry via ephrin-B2 and ephrin-B3 receptors, NiV exhibits marked endothelial and neuronal tropism, leading to systemic vasculitis, disruption of the blood–brain barrier, and direct infection of the central nervous system. Disease progression is driven by a complex interplay between viral replication strategies and host immune responses. NiV effectively counteracts innate immunity through multiple viral proteins that inhibit interferon signaling, while simultaneously inducing dysregulated inflammatory responses that contribute to tissue damage and multi-organ failure. Neurological involvement represents the most severe manifestation, often resulting in acute or relapsing encephalitis with long-term sequelae among survivors. Despite the severity of the disease, no licensed antiviral therapies or human vaccines are currently available. Therapeutic development has focused on neutralizing monoclonal antibodies targeting viral glycoproteins and small-molecule antivirals that inhibit viral RNA synthesis, both of which show promising results in preclinical models, but remain limited by timing and translational challenges. In parallel, several vaccine platforms—including viral vectors, mRNA-based constructs, and recombinant protein subunits—have advanced to early-phase clinical trials, demonstrating encouraging immunogenicity. Beyond biomedical interventions, effective outbreak containment relies on integrated public health strategies. The “Kerala model” highlights the importance of rapid case identification, isolation, contact tracing, and community engagement within a One Health framework to mitigate transmission and reduce mortality. This review synthesizes the current knowledge on NiV pathogenesis, immune evasion, clinical manifestations, and emerging therapeutic and vaccine strategies, while highlighting critical gaps and future directions for improving the preparedness and response to this high-consequence emerging pathogen.
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Antibiotic Reversal Activity of Piper longum Fruit Extracts against Staphylococcus aureus Multi-Drug Resistant Phenotype
(2023-12-28)
Ud Din, Maryam Salah
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Gohar, Umar Farooq
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Mukhtar, Hamid
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Khan, Ibrar
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Morris, John
Irrational and injudicious use of antibiotics, easy availability of them as over-the-counter drugs in economically developing countries, and unavailability of regulatory policies governing antimicrobial use in agriculture, animals, and humans, has led to the development of multi-drug resistance (MDR) bacteria. The use of medicinal plants can be considered as an alternative, with a consequent impact on microbial resistance. We tested extracts of Piper longum fruits as new natural products as agents for reversing the resistance to antibiotics. Six crude extracts of P. longum fruits were utilized against a clinical isolate of multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.The antibiotic susceptibility testing disc method was used in the antibiotic resistance reversal analysis. Apart from cefoxitin and erythromycin, all other antibiotics used (lincosamides [clindamycin], quinolones [levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin], and aminoglycosides [amikacin and gentamicin]) were enhanced by P. longum extracts. The extracts that showed the greatest synergy with the antibiotics were EAPL (ethyl acetate [extract of] P. longum), n-BPL (n-butanol [extract of] P. longum), and MPL (methanolic [extract of] P. longum The results of this study suggest that P. longum extracts have the ability to increase the effectiveness of different classes of antibiotics and reverse their resistance. However, future studies are needed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms behind the synergy between antibiotic and phytocompound(s) and identify the active biomolecules of P. longum responsible for the synergy in S. aureus.
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Inhibition of Pantoea agglomerans contamination of fresh-cut jackfruit by exposure to weak organic acid vapors
(2021-03-01)
Pothimon, Ruttipron
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Podjanee, Uraiwan
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Krusong, Warawut
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Thompson, Anthony Keith
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Massa, Salvatore
Fresh-cut jackfruit, purchased from markets in urban areas of Bangkok, were examined for bacterial contamination. Pantoea agglomerans was the predominant contaminant bacterium occurring in 90% of the 30 samples tested; many with high loads. Inhibition of surface contamination of P. agglomerans by vinegar, lactic acid or citric acid, either as liquid or vapor, were tested in vitro. For liquid-phase exposure, vinegar had a higher inhibitory effect than the other two, both of which that gave only slight inhibition. Exposure to vinegar vapor containing 3.36 mmol L−1 acetic acid for 90 min gave complete inhibition of P. agglomerans. In order to test this vaporized vinegar treatment on the quality of jackfruit, non-inoculated samples, with or without vinegar treatment, were stored for 7 d at 5 ± 2 °C and then tested by a sensory evaluation panel. Results showed that in all the attributes tested, color, texture and overall acceptability, vaporized vinegar treated sample were preferred to non-treated samples. It was concluded that exposure of fresh-cut jackfruit to vaporized vinegar is a simple method of controlling surface bacterial contamination without detrimentally affecting their acceptability.
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Production of fibrinolytic enzymes during food production
(2021-01-01)
Ali, Ali Muhammed Moula
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Bavisetty, Sri Charan Bindu
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Gullo, Maria
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Lertsiri, Sittiwat
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Morris, John
Fibrinolytic enzymes (FEs) are peptidases that cleave the fibrin mesh of thrombus clots, which are the primary causative agents for cardiovascular diseases. Several sources of FEs have been documented. However, microbial origin FEs have gained the spotlight due to their advantages such as ease of handling, substrate specificity, ease for genetic manipulation for upscale enzyme production. Several promising and potential strains have been isolated, especially from traditional fermented foods. In this context, this chapter aims to through some spotlight on the production of FEs through statistical optimization for fermentative bioprocessing, and genetic engineering approaches with strains isolated from diverse sources. Further, their postextraction stages for enzyme recovery (purification), biochemical and kinetic parameters have also been discussed concerning enzymes isolated from Asia traditional fermented foods to date. Microbial FEs, especially those from fermented foods, can be developed as functional foods, additives, or drugs against thrombolytic diseases.
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Antimicrobial resistance: more than 70 years of war between humans and bacteria
(2020-09-02)
Nadeem, Syeda Fatima
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Gohar, Umar Farooq
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Tahir, Syed Fahad
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Mukhtar, Hamid
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Pornpukdeewattana, Soisuda
Development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is one of the major issues in the present world and one of the greatest threats faced by mankind. Resistance is spread through both vertical gene transfer (parent to offspring) as well as by horizontal gene transfer like transformation, transduction and conjugation. The main mechanisms of resistance are limiting uptake of a drug, modification of a drug target, inactivation of a drug, and active efflux of a drug. The highest quantities of antibiotic concentrations are usually found in areas with strong anthropogenic pressures, for example medical source (e.g., hospitals) effluents, pharmaceutical industries, wastewater influents, soils treated with manure, animal husbandry and aquaculture (where antibiotics are generally used as in-feed preparations). Hence, the strong selective pressure applied by antimicrobial use has forced microorganisms to evolve for survival. The guts of animals and humans, wastewater treatment plants, hospital and community effluents, animal husbandry and aquaculture runoffs have been designated as “hotspots for AMR genes” because the high density of bacteria, phages, and plasmids in these settings allows significant genetic exchange and recombination. Evidence from the literature suggests that the knowledge of antibiotic resistance in the population is still scarce. Tackling antimicrobial resistance requires a wide range of strategies, for example, more research in antibiotic production, the need of educating patients and the general public, as well as developing alternatives to antibiotics (briefly discussed in the conclusions of this article).
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Alicyclobacillus spoilage and control - a review
(2020-01-02)
Pornpukdeewattana, Soisuda
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Jindaprasert, Aphacha
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Massa, Salvatore
In the last few decades Gram positive non pathogenic, rod shaped, thermo-acidophilic and acid-tolerant spore-forming bacteria such as Alicyclobacillus spp. have been identified as the causative agent in spoilage of commercially pasteurized fruit juice. In particular, A. acidoterrestris is considered a major producer of off-flavors. The spores of A. acidoterrestris possess the ability to survive commercial pasteurization processes, to germinate and grow in low pH environments and to produce volatile, unpleasant odorous compound (guaiacol) in fruit juices. The flat sour type of spoilage (without gas production or package swelling) is characterized as having a “medicinal,” “smoky,” and “antiseptic” off-flavor and makes the final juice product unacceptable. Spoilage by Alicyclobacillus is a major concern for producers since many of the new methods, which can destroy spores in the absence of chemical additives, may not destroy Alicyclobacillus. Although A. acidoterrestris is not pathogenic to humans, it can result in significant economic losses to juice processors because of its odor. The present review includes the taxonomy of Alicyclobacillus spp., their general characteristics, their resistance to heat and possible off-flavor production pathways. Particular emphasis is given to commonly used control measures, including physical, chemical and biological treatments currently available for removal of Alicyclobacillus spp.
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Healthy dried baby corn silk vinegar production and determination of its main organic volatiles containing antimicrobial activity
(2020-01-01)
Krusong, Warawut
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Sriphochanart, Wiramsri
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Suwapanich, Rachit
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Mekkerdchoo, Orachorn
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Sriprom, Pongsert
Dried baby corn silks (DBCS) are an underutilized by-product and a good source of active compounds. Analysis of DBCS showed 5.15 ± 0.21 mg GAE mL−1 total phenolic compounds, 4.24 ± 0.08 mg GAE mL−1 total flavonoid compounds and an antioxidant activity of 45.98 ± 7.89% inhibition for free radical scavenging DPPH, 91.33 ± 0.33% inhibition for ABTS and 44.17 ± 0.53% chelating effect for FIC. In the acetification process, 15 g L−1 (w/v) DBCS was suitable for wine making resulting in 94 ± 1 g L−1 alcohol. Subsequently, acetic acid (62 ± 1 to 75 ± 1 g L−1) was produced during 9 cycles of semi-continuous processing. The remaining active compounds, in both wine and vinegar, were also determined and a significant reduction (p ≤ 0.5) of total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity from DBSC was observed, which were higher in vinegar than in wine. Among volatile organic compounds found using GC-MS, only five of the main compounds, which had antimicrobial properties, were found in both wine and vinegar. They were acetic acid, ethyl ester; 1-butanol, 3-methyl-, acetone; 1-butanol, 3-methyl-; hexanoic acid and octanoic acid. Results indicated that DBCS contained compounds that were beneficial to health and therefore could be a functional food and provide additional beneficial applications as an antimicrobial agent.

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