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Process-structure-property relationships in low-temperature microwave dielectric ceramics: from glass-assisted sintering to cold sintering for 5G/6G devices
(2026-12-01)
Pulphol, Phieraya
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Tang, Ying
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Fang, Liang
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Vittayakorn, Wanwilai
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Sukkha, Usa
With the rapid advancement of wireless communication from 5G to 6G, a pressing need has emerged for microwave dielectric ceramics with excellent performance at reduced processing temperatures, compatible with low-temperature co-fired ceramic technology. This review traces historical milestones and highlights modern design strategies for achieving optimum dielectric constant, ultra-low dielectric loss, and near-zero temperature coefficient of resonant frequency. Special emphasis is placed on recent advances in low-temperature densification routes, including sintering aids, intrinsically low-sintering-temperature ceramic families, and novel techniques like the cold sintering process. This review provides a critical analysis of the performance trade-offs inherent to each strategy, addressing the persistent challenges in achieving ultra-low loss. Furthermore, we highlight the paradigm shift toward a holistic, multifunctional design imperative for 6G systems. Finally, the transformative potential of cross-disciplinary approaches, particularly AI-assisted discovery, and computational modeling, is discussed as a key enabler for accelerating the design of next-generation, high-performance, and sustainable LTCC-compatible materials.
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Immobilized microalgae-driven triboelectric nanogenerators for sustainable bioelectricity production
(2026-12-01)
Kaja, Kushal Ruthvik
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Janpum, Chalampol
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Komkhum, Tanakit
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Hajra, Sugato
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Vivekananthan, Venkateswaran
Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) are emerging as promising solutions for decentralised energy generation due to the growing need for sustainable power sources. These devices convert wasted mechanical energy into electricity under ambient conditions, offering advantages such as eco-friendly operation, material versatility, and effective energy scavenging. Despite these benefits, their relatively low electrical output compared to conventional sources like batteries and fuel cells remains a limitation. Microalgae have attracted attention for their ability to produce bioelectricity through photosynthesis and respiration while simultaneously capturing carbon dioxide. Immobilising microalgal cells on conductive substrates improves electron transfer and metabolic activity. In this context, living Chlorella vulgaris TISTR 8580 with varied cell densities was immobilised on aluminium electrodes and incorporated into a TENG platform to explore energy harvesting from solid-solid and solid-liquid interactions. The highest output of 110 V and 330 nA was generated, confirming the microalgae as a promising tribolayer and extending the conventional triboelectric series. However, sustaining cell viability over extended periods remains a challenge, highlighting the need for optimised light and nutrient conditions in future developments.
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Interfacial field-driven self-poling in a lead-free P(VDF–TrFE)/BCZT nanogenerator: achieving high-performance energy harvesting via percolation-optimized dielectric coupling
(2026-07-23)
Ukasi, Sirinya
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Triputtikun, Jakkrit
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Sae-tang, Chanachot
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Sumang, Rattiphorn
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Panpho, Phakakorn
Achieving spontaneous dipole alignment without external poling remains a grand challenge in developing high-performance ferroelectric nanogenerators. This work reports a self-poling mechanism driven by engineered interfacial fields at the polymer–ceramic junction. By embedding lead-free Ba<inf>0.85</inf>Ca<inf>0.15</inf>Zr<inf>0.1</inf>Ti<inf>0.9</inf>O<inf>3</inf> (BCZT) crystals into a P(VDF–TrFE) matrix, we create strong localized electric fields that promote unidirectional dipole orientation, thereby eliminating the need for conventional electrical poling procedures. The resulting hybrid piezo-triboelectric nanogenerator (H-PTENG), optimized at a 1 wt% BCZT loading, exhibits remarkable energy-harvesting performance with a high open-circuit voltage (∼173.4 V), short-circuit current (∼5.23 µA), and power density (∼182 µW cm−2), outperforming most lead-free counterparts. This dielectric percolation-like optimum maximizes the dielectric–ferroelectric coupling mediated by Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars interfacial polarization, simultaneously enhancing piezoelectric and triboelectric outputs while preserving low dielectric loss. The device also demonstrates robust mechanical durability (>10 000 bending cycles) and retains usable output under varying humidity and temperature conditions, although its performance is reduced at ultra-high relative humidity due to water-induced charge dissipation. Its real-world applicability is confirmed by directly powering commercial electronics, including 82 LEDs, a digital wristwatch, an electronic scoreboard, and a Bluetooth-enabled humidity–temperature sensor. Collectively, this work establishes a scalable, lead-free, and poling-free design paradigm based on interfacial field engineering for next-generation flexible, self-powered electronic systems.
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Harvesting energy from friction: the revolutionary decade of triboelectric nanogenerators
(2026-04-01)
Khanapurarm, Uday Kumar
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Rani, Gokana Mohana
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Panda, Swati
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Charoonsuk, Thitirat
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Mistewicz, Krystian
Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have rapidly developed into a transformative energy harvesting technology, enabling self-powered, sustainable electronic systems. This review offers the first comprehensive, multidisciplinary perspective that connects the physics of triboelectric charge transfer with material innovation, device engineering, and real-world applications. We systematically categorize and measure the triboelectric series across a wide range of materials, including polymers, 2D materials, MOFs, perovskites, cellulose, and biodegradable frameworks, using experimentally validated methods. In addition to traditional approaches, this work highlights emerging strategies such as machine learning-guided material discovery, 3D printing, and advanced structural engineering to improve charge retention, durability, and power output. Unlike existing reviews, it uniquely combines theory and application insights, presents diverse uses from biomedical sensing and environmental monitoring to underwater communication and mechanoluminescence, and outlines a forward-looking plan for sustainable energy harvesting. This comprehensive synthesis serves as an essential resource for researchers and technologists designing next-generation TENGs and multifunctional self-powered devices.
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Flexible and Self-Powered Wearable Sensors for Tremor Monitoring in Parkinson'S Disease: Recent Advances in Materials and Device Architectures
(2026-01-01)
Ukasi, Sirinya
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Hajra, Sugato
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Kim, Hoe Joon
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Sriphan, Saichon
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Pongampai, Satana
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder where tremor remains one of the most prominent and disabling motor symptoms. Traditional clinical rating scales for disease severity rely on clinician observation and patient self-report, often failing to capture the dynamic and continuous nature of tremors in daily life. This drives the development of objective monitoring technologies, such as wearable sensors, for more accurate evaluation of PD severity. However, many existing systems use rigid materials that lack the mechanical compliance and skin conformability required for stable biointegration. This review summarizes advances in flexible wearable sensors for PD tremor assessment from material innovations to a device engineering perspective, covering inertial measurement units (IMUs), electromyography (EMG), and emerging self-powered systems such as triboelectric (TENG) and piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENG). This review highlightshow functional materials, microstructural design, and device architectures govern sensing mechanisms and performance, with particular emphasis on the transition from rigid components to soft, skin-interfaced technologies. Recent patent activity reflects a shift toward multimodal, wireless, and clinically integrated platforms. Despite progress, challenges remain, including motion artifacts, durability, and limited large-scale clinical validation. Integration of flexible materials, self-powered designs, and AI-driven analytics enables continuous, personalized monitoring, moving closer to real-world clinical deployment and improved patient care.
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Advances in nanogenerator enabled smart mask-based self-powered health monitoring units
(2025-11-21)
Belal, Mohamed A.
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Panda, Swati
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Khanapuram, Udaykumar
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Hajra, Sugato
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Kaja, Kushal Ruthvik
The detection and analysis of volatile biomarkers in exhaled breath have emerged as promising non-invasive strategies for early disease diagnosis, therapeutic monitoring, and personalized healthcare. Traditional gas sensing platforms, however, often face limitations including dependency on external power sources, bulky designs, and inadequate sensitivity or selectivity under physiological conditions. This work provides a complete overview of recent improvements in self-powered gas sensors, with a special emphasis on their use in exhaled breath analysis for health monitoring. We begin by discussing the biomedical importance of breath-based diagnostics and the significant challenges associated with traditional sensor technology. Afterward, we investigate the mechanisms of energy harvesting systems such as triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) and piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs), which facilitate the self-powered operation without an external energy supply. Innovations in materials, structural design techniques, and integration strategies that improve mechanical flexibility, sensitivity, and gas selectivity are highlighted. We also highlight recent breakthroughs in wearable and portable gas sensing platforms that demonstrate real-time responsiveness and human-interfaced compatibility. Despite significant progress, challenges such as miniaturization, biomarker specificity, signal stability in dynamic environments, and large-scale manufacturability still need to be addressed. Finally, we discuss potential ways to address these barriers, envisioning a future where self-powered gas sensors play a transformative role in point-of-care diagnostics, continuous health monitoring, and smart healthcare ecosystems. This review aims to serve as a valuable resource for researchers and developers seeking to advance the field of self-powered biomedical sensing technologies.
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A Kirigami-Engineered “Skeletal Framework” Composite for Ultralow Hysteresis and Highly Stable Strain Sensors
(2025-11-24)
Pongampai, Satana
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Chaithaweep, Kanokwan
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Pakawanit, Phakkhananan
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Charoonsuk, Thitirat
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Bongkarn, Theerachai
Wearable strain sensors are pivotal for next-generation human–machine interfaces, yet achieving high fidelity, robustness, and sustainability in a single platform remains a significant challenge. A primary obstacle is the inherent viscoelasticity of soft materials, which leads to signal drift and hysteresis. Here, we report a highly stretchable and ultrastable strain sensor fabricated through a synergistic integration of Kirigami-based structural engineering and nanocomposite material design. By introducing titanium dioxide nanotubes (TNTs) into a bacterial cellulose (BC) matrix, we create a composite with a unique internal “skeletal framework”. This framework substantially reduces viscoelastic losses, resulting in an exceptionally low hysteresis of 0.6% and ensuring robust performance with 99.4% signal stability over >10 000 cycles. Concurrently, the Kirigami-patterned structure enhances stretchability to ∼235% while the framework amplifies sensitivity 5.8-fold. The practical viability of this high-fidelity sensor is demonstrated through the precise and repeatable control of a robotic arm, where ultralow hysteresis proves more critical than raw sensitivity. The sensor’s eco-friendly, water-based fabrication aligns high-fidelity sensing with sustainable processing, presenting a clear design paradigm for engineering reliable and eco-conscious wearable electronic devices.
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Mechanoluminescent-energy harvesting bimodal sensors for self-powered communication sensors
(2025-09-26)
Hajra, Sugato
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Panda, Swati
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Kaja, Kushal Ruthvik
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Song, Seongkyu
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Ryu, Yeonkyeong
Mechanoluminescence (ML) is the emission of light triggered by mechanical stress. In the meantime, accurate, quantitative force measurement is made possible by piezoelectricity, which transforms mechanical deformation into electrical signals. A deep insight into the mechanical interactions, such as strain-based phenomena, is achieved by integrating ML and piezoelectricity into a single device. In this study, a composite based on ZnS:Cu–polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is developed to achieve this dual functionality for ML-based optical responses and piezoelectric-based electrical output. The presence of piezoelectricity in PDMS–ZnS:Cu composites was traced using piezo force microscopy (PFM) imaging. Various mechanical stimuli of pressing, stretching, and bending are applied to evaluate the performance of the device. Under a force of 5 N, the piezoelectric nanogenerator (PENG) device generates a voltage of 17 V and a current of 70 nA. Additionally, ML and PENG effects are employed for underwater communications. A signal processing technique is further utilized for the classification of voltage signals produced during underwater communications. This self-powered dual-mode sensor has great potential for use in energy harvesting, wearable technology, and battery-free systems, opening the door to more intelligent and responsive user interfaces.
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Recent Advances in Zwitterionic Materials and Hydrogels for Triboelectric Nanogenerators and Self-Powered Sensing
(2025-08-08)
Manojkumar, Kaliyannan
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Muthuramalingam, Mukilan
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Sateesh, Dhara
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Sundaramoorthy, Arunmetha
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Srinivasa Babu, P. S.
The integration of zwitterionic polymers with triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) has sparked significant interest in the conversion of mechanical energy into electricity. Zwitterionic polymers, characterized by their unique molecular structure featuring dual charge configurations, have revolutionized energy harvesting in TENG technology. This review explores recent advancements in the integration of zwitterionic polymers with TENGs, focusing on their applications in self-healing, antibacterial, flexible, and antifreezing scenarios. Despite offering superior properties such as enhanced output voltage and chemical stability, challenges persist in their synthesis complexity and compatibility. Strategies to address these challenges include the development of hybrid material systems and scalable synthesis methods. Overall, this review emphasizes the pivotal role of zwitterionic polymers in propelling the advancement of TENG technology, providing insights into current trends and future prospects.
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Synergistic Piezo- and Triboelectricity in a Novel Triglycine Sulfate/Bacterial Cellulose/Chitosan Flexible Composite Nanogenerator
(2025-08-14)
Ukasi, Sirinya
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Saichompoo, Kittipan
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Sae-tang, Chanachot
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Pakawanit, Phakkhananan
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Pongampai, Satana
Organic piezoelectric materials offer sustainable alternatives for mechanical energy harvesting (MEH), yet their potential remains underexplored compared to inorganic counterparts. This study pioneers the use of triglycine sulfate (TGS), a rarely studied organic piezoelectric, within a flexible three-phase composite with bacterial cellulose (BC) and chitosan (CS) for piezoelectric (PENG) and triboelectric (TENG) nanogenerators. Unlike widely researched systems, TGS's unique hybrid organic–inorganic nature is leveraged here for the first time in MEH. Optimized at a 50:50 BC:CS ratio with 40 wt.% TGS, achieves a TENG output of 141.2 V and 93.3 µA post-poling—1.8 and 2.4 fold higher than unpoled samples—driven by TGS's dipole alignment. Separately, the configuration utilizing a 5 wt.% TGS loading yields 13.7 V and 0.19 µA. Advanced characterization (ATR-FTIR, SR-XTM) and simulations (COMSOL, DFT) reveal TGS's synergy with BC/CS roughness, enhancing charge generation. Delivering 118.65 µW cm−2, the TENG (from the 40 wt.% TGS poled sample) powers a digital watch, showcasing practical promise. This work not only introduces TGS as a novel MEH candidate but also provides mechanistic insights into its polarization, advancing bio-hybrid nanogenerator design.

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